Other economic concepts related to inflation include: deflation – a fall in the general price level disinflation – a decrease in the rate of inflation hyperinflation – an out-of-control inflationary spiral stagflation – a combination of inflation, slow economic growth and high unemployment reflation – an attempt to raise the general level of prices to counteract deflationary pressures and asset price inflation – a general rise in the prices of financial assets without a corresponding increase in the prices of goods or services agflation – an advanced increase in the price for food and industrial agricultural crops when compared with the general rise in prices. Today, however, it is understood as referring to a sustained increase in the general price level (as distinct from short-term fluctuations). The term inflation appeared in America in the mid-nineteenth century, "not in reference to something that happens to prices, but as something that happens to a paper currency". During the American Civil War (1861–65) the gold dollar was replaced by the greenback, a government-issued paper currency that quickly lost some of its value thereby, this definition of the word appears to have been enhanced. It was also used for lending and price inflation in the years after that, until 1874. The term originates from the Latin inflare (to blow up or inflate) and was initially used in 1838 in the regard of an inflation of the currency, per the Oxford English Dictionary (1989). 2.4 "Price revolution" in Western Europe.Generally, these monetary authorities are the central banks that control monetary policy through the setting of interest rates, by carrying out open market operations and (more rarely) changing commercial bank reserve requirements. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities. Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation reduces the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduces the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilising the economy, while avoiding the costs associated with high inflation. Today, most economists favour a low and steady rate of inflation. Positive effects include reducing unemployment due to nominal wage rigidity, allowing the central bank greater freedom in carrying out monetary policy, encouraging loans and investment instead of money hoarding, and avoiding the inefficiencies associated with deflation. The negative effects would include an increase in the opportunity cost of holding money, uncertainty over future inflation which may discourage investment and savings, and if inflation were rapid enough, shortages of goods as consumers begin hoarding out of concern that prices will increase in the future. Moderate inflation affects economies in both positive and negative ways. Low or moderate inflation may be attributed to fluctuations in real demand for goods and services, or changes in available supplies such as during scarcities.
Views on low to moderate rates of inflation are more varied. Most economists agree that high levels of inflation as well as hyperinflation-which have severely disruptive effects on the real economy-are caused by persistent excessive growth in the money supply. The employment cost index is also used for wages in the United States. As prices do not all increase at the same rate, the consumer price index (CPI) is often used for this purpose. The common measure of inflation is the inflation rate, the annualized percentage change in a general price index. The opposite of inflation is deflation, a sustained decrease in the general price level of goods and services. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services consequently, inflation corresponds to a reduction in the purchasing power of money. In economics, inflation is a general increase in the prices of goods and services in an economy. UK and US monthly inflation rates from January 1989 to the present.